Recent conflicts have revealed two distinct patterns of warfare. The first involves neighbouring states engaged in territorial disputes, as seen in the Azerbaijan-Armenia wars of 2020 and 2023 and the ongoing Russo-Ukraine conflict.
The second occurs when a state or alliance without a shared border seeks to impose its will, exemplified by the US-Israel-Iran confrontation. India, with territorial disputes involving two neighbours, falls squarely into the first category.
Technology has profoundly shaped these wars. In the Azerbaijan-Armenia conflict, rockets, drones, missiles, electronic warfare systems and loitering munitions were employed with devastating effect. Armenia was forced into a ceasefire after suffering heavy losses from coordinated strikes using Turkish UAVs and loitering ammunition.
The Russo-Ukraine war has demonstrated even more imaginative applications of technology. Russia initially gained the upper hand as Ukraine lacked UAV and counter-UAV capabilities. As the war progressed, Ukraine’s innovative use of UAVs and commercial satellites made the battlefield transparent, while armed robots and drones added destructive power. Surprise became impossible, and large mechanised formations were rendered ineffective.
Russian mechanised forces adapted by incorporating counter-drone and loitering munition capabilities, while tactics shifted to smaller, dispersed teams supported by UAVs and firepower. Ukraine, despite extensive use of UAVs and robots to compensate for manpower shortages, found that territorial defence still required boots on the ground.
Land forces remain indispensable in conflicts centred on territorial disputes. Airpower too has evolved. Russia’s superior air force suffered heavy losses against Ukraine’s layered air defences, forcing it to avoid contested airspace and rely on long-range precision weapons such as cruise missiles and glide bombs. This reduced close air support for ground troops, compelling them to be self-reliant.
Russia has targeted Ukraine’s industrial complexes, energy infrastructure and supply depots with UAVs and missiles launched from deep within its territory. Ukraine’s strikes on Russian air bases forced Moscow to relocate its air assets further back.
On the frontlines, FPV drones and loitering munitions are critical for surveillance and targeting. UAVs and ground drones are also used for re-supply and casualty evacuation. Anti-jamming modifications and defensive anti-drone nets have become commonplace.
In contrast, the US-Israel-Iran conflict is shaped by airpower and missile exchanges rather than territorial disputes, highlighting the different dynamics of wars without shared borders.
India’s Operation Sindoor mirrored aspects of the Russo-Ukraine model. With Pakistan fielding Chinese air defence systems, India relied on long-range precision weapons, loitering munitions and BrahMos missiles launched from within its own territory to strike Pakistani air defences and bases.
India’s S-400 system achieved a record-breaking kill of a Pakistani AEW&C aircraft at 314 km. Both sides kept their airpower within national borders to avoid losses.
This reflects the growing complexity of future conflicts, where air operations close to borders or inside enemy territory will only be feasible once adversary air defences are neutralised, which is unlikely in short wars.
Sindoor differed from Operation Bandar in 2019, where dogfights over Balakot led to losses on both sides. During Sindoor, Indian artillery employed precision-guided munitions to degrade terrorist camps and posts.
Since then, the Indian Army has inducted UAVs and loitering munitions down to battalion level to strengthen ground troops. It is restructuring firepower with long-range precision weapons and raising Rudra brigades and Integrated Battle Groups to replace large mechanised formations. Reports suggest the creation of a rocket and missile force to strike deep positions and defend troops in contact battles.
Artillery has adopted fire-and-scoot tactics to evade adversary loitering munitions and counter-bombardment. The Air Force is enhancing long-range strike capabilities with Rampage, BrahMos, Crystal Maze missiles, Gaurav and TARA glide bombs, SAAW weapons for airfield denial, and Meteor and ASTRA MK-2 for long-range air combat.
These developments, alongside loitering munitions and smart drones, indicate that future engagements will be conducted from beyond adversary air defence ranges. Airspaces will be contested and dominated by defensive systems, limiting traditional airpower employment.
Close air support for ground forces will increasingly rely on accurate long-range weapons rather than direct battlefield presence. Troops must therefore be equipped to identify threats and defend themselves with UAVs, loitering munitions, artillery and missile systems under their direct control.
The Tactical Battle Area will be congested, with multiple forces operating simultaneously. Coordinating airspace through a single agency will be impractical, and UAVs cannot be restricted to one service or command.
Intense electronic warfare will further disrupt command, control and communications. Realistic solutions for airspace management are essential if India is to fight effectively in future wars.
Agencies
